Tramadol is an atypical opioid which is a centrally acting analgesic, used for treating moderate to severe pain. It is a synthetic agent, as a 4-phenyl-piperidine analogue of codeine, and appears to have actions on the GABAergic, noradrenergic and serotonergic systems. Tramadol was developed by the German pharmaceutical company Grünenthal GmbH in the last years of 1970s and marketed under the trade name Tramal. Tramadol is usually marketed as the hydrochloride salt (tramadol hydrochloride) and is available in both injectable (intravenous and/or intramuscular) and oral preparations. It is also available in conjunction with paracetamol (acetaminophen). Tramadol is marketed as a racemic mixture with a weak affinity for the μ-opioid receptor (approximately 1/6th that of morphine). The (+)-enantiomer is approximately four times more potent than the (-)-enantiomer in terms of μ-opioid receptor affinity and 5-HT reuptake, whereas the (-)-enantiomer is responsible for noradrenaline reuptake effects (Shipton, 2000). These actions appear to produce a synergistic analgesic effect, with (+)-tramadol exhibiting 10-fold higher analgesic activity than (-)-tramadol (Goeringer et al., 1997).

Hexamethylene triperoxide diamine, or HMTD is a high explosive organic chemical compound, first synthesised in 1885 by Legler. The theorised structure lent itself well to acting as an initiating, or primary explosive. While still quite sensitive to shock and friction, it was relatively stable compared to other initiating explosives of the time, such as mercury fulminate, and proved to be relatively inexpensive and easy to synthesise. As such, it was quickly taken up as a primary explosive in mining applications.

Vardenafil is a PDE5 inhibitor used in the treatment of erectile dysfunction. It can assist men with this disorder in achieving and maintaining an erection during sexual activity. It is commonly marketed under the trade name Levitra (sold by Bayer AG).

Hyaluronan (also called hyaluronic acid or hyaluronate) is a glycosaminoglycan distributed widely throughout connective, epithelial, and neural tissues. It is one of the chief components of the extracellular matrix, contributes significantly to cell proliferation and migration, and may also be involved in the progression of some malignant tumors. The average 70-kg man has roughly 15 grams of hyaluronan in his body, one-third of which is turned over (degraded and synthesised) every day. Hyaluronan is a common ingredient in skin care product, and the branded version Restylane is used as injections to temporarily smooth wrinkles by adding volume under the skin or the brand Macrolane to increase breast size by adding volume using a natural tissue chemical.

Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxin protein produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. It is one of the most poisonous naturally occurring substances in the world, and it is the most toxic protein, just 0.000 000 7 grams would kill most adults. Though it is highly toxic, it is used in minute doses both to treat painful muscle spasms, and as a cosmetic treatment in some parts of the world. It is sold commercially under the brand names Myobloc, Botox and Dysport for this purpose. Botox is manufactured by Allergan Inc (U.S.) for both therapeutic as well as cosmetic use. The formulation is best stored at cold temperature of 2-8 degrees Celsius. Dysport is a therapeutic formulation of the type A toxin developed and manufactured in Ireland and which is licenced for the treatment of focal dystonias and certain cosmetic uses in many territories world wide.

Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. The living cell uses it as a source of energy and metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and starts cellular respiration in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The name comes from the Greek word glykys (γλυκύς), which means "sweet", plus the suffix "-ose" which denotes a sugar. Two stereoisomers of the aldohexose sugars are known as glucose, only one of which (D-glucose) is biologically active. This form (D-glucose) is often referred to as dextrose monohydrate, or, especially in the food industry, simply dextrose (from dextrorotatory glucose). This article deals with the D-form of glucose. The mirror-image of the molecule, L-glucose, cannot be metabolized by cells in the biochemical process known as glycolysis.

Gulose is an aldohexose sugar. It is an unnatural monosaccharide that exists as a syrup with a sweet taste. It is soluble in water and slightly soluble in methanol. Both the D- and L-forms are not fermentable by yeast.

Altrose is an aldohexose sugar. The D isomer is an unnatural monosaccharide. It is soluble in water and practically insoluble in methanol. L-altrose has been isolated from strains of the bacterium Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens.

Mannose is a hexose sugar monomer. Mannose is present in numerous glycoconjugates including N-linked glycosylation of proteins. C-mannosylation is also abundant and can be found in collage-like regions. The name of both "mannose" and "manitol" comesis manna, which the Bible records as the food supplied to the Israelites during their journey through the Sinai Peninsula. Manna is a sweet secretion of several trees and shrubs, such as Fraxinus ornus.

Allose is an aldohexose sugar. It is a rare monosaccharide that has been isolated from the leaves of the African shrub Protea rubropilosa. It is soluble in water and practically insoluble in methanol.